Internet Protocol address

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label such as 192.0.2.1 that is connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two main functions: network interface identification and location addressing.

Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was standardized in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s.

IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 192.0.2.1 in IPv4, and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6. The size of the routing prefix of the address is designated in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with the number of significant bits, e.g., 192.0.2.1/24, which is equivalent to the historically used subnet mask 255.255.255.0.

The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated territories for assignment to local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers (ISPs), and other end users. IPv4 addresses were distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each, but have been exhausted at the IANA level since 2011. Only one of the RIRs still has a supply for local assignments in Africa. Some IPv4 addresses are reserved for private networks and are not globally unique.

Network administrators assign an IP address to each device connected to a network. Such assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on network practices and software features.

Function

An IP address serves two principal functions: it identifies the host, or more specifically its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the capability of establishing a path to that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there." The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host and that of the destination host.

IP versions

Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use on the Internet today. The original version of the Internet Protocol that was first deployed in 1983 in the ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).

By the early 1990s, the rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space available for assignment to Internet service providers and end-user organizations prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand addressing capability on the Internet. The result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually known as Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995. IPv6 technology was in various testing stages until the mid-2000s when commercial production deployment commenced.

Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous use. Among other technical changes, each version defines the format of addresses differently. Because of the historical prevalence of IPv4, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of version 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, which however was never referred to as IPv5.

Other versions v1 to v9 were defined, but only v4 and v6 ever gained widespread use. v1 and v2 were names for TCP protocols in 1974 and 1977, as there was no separate IP specification at the time. v3 was defined in 1978, and v3.1 is the first version where TCP is separated from IP. v6 is a synthesis of several suggested versions, v6 Simple Internet Protocol, v7 TP/IX: The Next Internet, v8 PIP — The P Internet Protocol, and v9 TUBA — Tcp & Udp with Big Addresses.

Subnetworks

IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP address is recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix in the high-order bits and the remaining bits called the rest field, host identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6), used for host numbering within a network. The subnet mask or CIDR notation determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.

The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.

DID YOU KOW WIKIPEDIA HAS BEEN AROUND SINCE 2001! From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A Sweet Evening-Ender

(Culinary.net) Nearly anytime can be a good time for a decadent dessert. This Creamy Raspberry Mocha Parfait, which combines the flavors of instant coffee, chocolate and raspberries, can be a perfect nightcap to almost any meal.

Find more dessert recipes at Culinary.net.

Watch video to see how to make this recipe!

Creamy Raspberry Mocha Parfait

Servings: 4

• 2          tablespoons hot water
• 1          tablespoon instant coffee
• 1          packet chocolate pudding mix
• 2          cups milk
• 1          carton whipped topping
• 1          cup heavy cream
• 1/4       teaspoon cream of tartar
• 1/2       teaspoon vanilla extract
• 2          tablespoons sugar
• 2          cups raspberries
• whipped cream, for topping
• chocolate powder, for dusting

1. In small bowl, mix hot water and instant coffee. Cool completely.
2. In medium bowl, mix milk and chocolate pudding mix until blended and thickened. Add cooled coffee; mix well. Add whipped topping; mix well. Chill.
3. In large bowl, add heavy cream, cream of tartar and vanilla extract. Beat mixture to form peaks. Gradually add sugar. Continue beating mixture until stiffer peaks form.
4. In four parfait glasses, layer chocolate pudding mix, whipped cream mix and raspberries. Top raspberries with additional chocolate pudding mix, dollop of whipped cream, another raspberry and dust with chocolate powder.

SOURCE:
Culinary.net

Put More You into Your Wedding Day

A wedding day is filled with symbolic tradition, from varied religious customs to the never-ending circle reflected in the rings and the types of flowers accentuating the celebration. Even with all the traditional rituals to consider, nearly every bride and groom can find ways to give their special day some unique touches that reflect their personality and love.

Music sets the mood for every wedding, and it’s an easy place to put your own spin on the celebration. Whether you forgo the traditional bridal march entirely or simply look for an arrangement that gives an updated twist to the classic version, let guests know this isn’t your average wedding by setting the festivities against a soundtrack that lets your true character shine.

The wedding party is intended to be a collection of those nearest and dearest to the bride and groom, who help ensure the day goes off without a hitch and who lead fellow revelers in celebrating the start of the new couple’s life together. That being said, there’s no reason this group must be limited to women on her side and guys on his, or even that it’s limited to humans – a beloved pooch can make for an adorable ring-bearer, after all.

Photography is an essential element of your big day, but think beyond the images you’ll capture throughout the wedding and reception. Photos lend a personal touch, no matter what your color scheme or theme. Integrate photos of the two of you at various stages of life, together as a couple and with loved ones (perhaps even some you’re honoring in memoriam). You can display these at a table with the guest book, as part of the table centerpieces, or even on the gift table. Or take things digital and load all your images into a slide show set to music.

Make favors meaningful. Forgo more common items like bubbles and chocolate, and instead send a little of yourself home with your guests. Maybe it’s a memento from a place with special meaning to you both, or a bottle opener shaped like a bicycle to represent the way you met. Just think about the moments and things that define you as a couple and do some searching online. You’ll probably be surprised by how quickly the options pile up.

Serve up a menu that shows guests more about your life together. Your loved ones can order basic beef or chicken anywhere. Instead, give them a glimpse into you. Make your main course the same food you enjoyed on your first date or during another monumental moment in your courtship. Or plan the entire menu around a region that you hold close to your heart.

Weddings are filled with traditions, but that doesn’t mean you can’t put your own touches on the day for a special event filled with memories that are uniquely your own. Find more advice for life’s special moments at elivingtoday.com.

Photo courtesy of Getty Images

SOURCE:
eLivingToday.com

5 Easy Ways to Say "I Love You"

 

5 Easy Ways to Say "I Love You"

If gift-giving isn't your strong suit, occasions like Valentine's Day are likely to bring on stress and worry, but procrastinating will only serve to elevate your unease. 

Follow these steps to simplify your shopping, and while you may not come to love the task of finding the perfect gift, your loved one will undoubtedly appreciate your effort.

1. Browse for ideas online. Many retailers offer special promotions and gift idea sections on their websites, so finding inspiration can be as easy as visiting the sites of your loved one's favorite stores. There are also dozens of articles online to help get the ideas flowing. Searches such as "gifts for horse lovers" or "Valentine's gifts for a new boyfriend" will reveal a long list of ideas to peruse.

2. Keep it simple. Although the advertising industry works hard to convince consumers otherwise, Valentine's Day isn't really all about the bling. Sure, a pretty bauble is a welcome gift, but there are plenty of ways to show your affection that don't require spending a month's salary. A heartfelt card paired with a memento of a meaningful event or place in your relationship sends the same loving sentiment. 

3. Make it a (different) date. For many couples, navigating the demands of work, kids and life make spending time together a luxury. Instead of fighting crowds at busy restaurants on the official date, celebrate your love on a day of your own choosing, when you can relax and enjoy the time together without the pressure to rush through dessert so your table can be flipped for the next waiting couple. 

4. Give blooms a boost. A dozen long-stem red roses is a beautiful gesture, but unless your intended rose receiver is a strictly traditional type, try adding a little spice to your floral arrangement. Go for a bouquet in her favorite color, or have the flowers arranged in a practical vessel she can reuse to remember the occasion, such as a cocktail shaker or a watering can.

5. Go ahead, gift yourself. It may seem counter-intuitive, but finding a gift you'll enjoy may inspire an idea for your loved one. The trick is finding something you can share together, whether it's tickets to a show or his and hers mugs for enjoying your favorite brew. Just be sure the item is something your intended will share your enthusiasm for, or you may as well go buy a blender.

Find more ideas to simplify every occasion at eLivingToday.com. Thank you Family Features

Pi gets all the fanfare, but other numbers also deserve their own math holidays

One mathematical constant describes the population growth rate of a bunch of rabbits. Supalerk Laipawat/EyeEm via Getty Images

Manil Suri, University of Maryland, Baltimore County

March 14 is celebrated as Pi Day because the date, when written as 3/14, matches the start of the decimal expansion 3.14159… of the most famous mathematical constant.

By itself, pi is simply a number, one among countless others between 3 and 4. What makes it famous is that it’s built into every circle you see – circumference equals pi times diameter – not to mention a range of other, unrelated contexts in nature, from the bell curve distribution to general relativity.

The true reason to celebrate Pi Day is that mathematics, which is a purely abstract subject, turns out to describe our universe so well. My book “The Big Bang of Numbers” explores how remarkably hardwired into our reality math is. Perhaps the most striking evidence comes from mathematical constants: those rare numbers, including pi, that break out of the pack by appearing so frequently – and often, unexpectedly – in natural phenomena and related equations, that mathematicians like me exalt them with special names and symbols.

So, what other mathematical constants are worth celebrating? Here are my proposals to start filling out the rest of the calendar.

The Golden Ratio

For January, I nominate the Golden Ratio, phi. Two quantities are said to be in this ratio if dividing the larger by the smaller quantity gives the same answer as dividing the sum of the two quantities by the larger quantity. Phi equals 1.618…, and since there’s no Jan. 61, we could celebrate it on Jan. 6.

First calculated by Euclid, this ratio was popularized by Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli, who wrote a book in 1509 extravagantly extolling its aesthetic properties. Supposedly, Leonardo da Vinci, who drew 60 drawings for this book, incorporated it into the dimensions of Mona Lisa’s features, a choice some claim is responsible for her beauty.

The vertical and horizontal measures of Mona Lisa’s face fit the Golden Ratio. 'The Big Bang of Numbers'

The first inkling that phi occurs in nature came from another Italian, Fibonacci, while studying how rabbits multiply. A common reproductive assumption was that each pair of rabbits begets another pair every month. Start with a single rabbit pair, and successive populations will then follow the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 and so on – that is, get multiplied by a monthly “growth ratio” of 2.

What Fibonacci observed, though, was that rabbits spent the first cycle reaching sexual maturity and only began reproducing after that. A single pair now gives the new, slower progression 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34… instead. This is the famous sequence named after Fibonacci; notice that each population turns out to be the sum of its two predecessors.

Fibonacci’s rabbits don’t really double their population each generation – their growth ratio actually approaches the 1.618… of phi. 'The Big Bang of Numbers'

How does phi show up amid all these randy rabbits? Well, progressing through the sequence, you see that each number is about 1.6 times the previous one. In fact, this growth ratio keeps getting closer and closer to 1.618…. For instance, 21 equals about 1.615 times 13, and 34 equals about 1.619 times 21. This means the rabbits settle down to reproducing with a growth ratio that is no longer 2, but rather, gets closer and closer to the Golden Ratio.

The number of spirals in a pine cone is usually a Fibonacci number. 'The Big Bang of Numbers'

Actual rabbits are unlikely to follow this rule precisely. For one, they have the unfortunate tendency to get eaten by predators. But the Fibonacci numbers – like 5, 8, 13 and so on – show up extensively in nature, like in the number of spirals you might see in a typical pine cone. And yes, phi itself makes a few appearances as well, perhaps most notably in the way leaves arrange themselves around a stem to maximize exposure to sunlight.

The constant ‘e’

February offers another blockbuster constant, Euler’s number e, which has the value 2.718…. So mark next Feb. 7 for the shindig.

To understand e, consider “doubling” growth again, but now in terms of the “population” of dollars in your bank account. By some miracle, your money in this example is earning you 100% interest, compounded each year. Each $1 invested becomes $2 at year’s end.

Suppose, however, the interest is compounded semiannually. Then 50% of the interest is credited midyear, giving you $1.50. You get the remaining 50% interest on this $1.50 at the end of the year, which works out to $0.75, giving you $2.25 ($1.50 + $0.75). So your investment gets multiplied by 2.25, rather than 2.

What if a war broke out between banks, each offering to compound the same 100% interest over shorter and more frequent intervals? Would the sky be the limit in terms of your payout? The answer is no. You could raise your growth ratio from 2 to about 2.718 – more precisely, to e – but no higher. Although you get more frequent credits, they have progressively diminishing returns.

In the late 17th century, the discovery of calculus led to a quantum leap in people’s ability to grapple with the universe. Math could now analyze anything that changed – which extended its domain to most phenomena in nature. The constant e is famous because of its iconic role in calculus: It turns out to be the most natural growth factor to track change. Consequently, it shows up in laws describing many natural processes - from population growth to radioactive decay.

The constant e is a big part of calculus – and turns up in all kinds of natural phenomena.

Next on our calendar of mathematical constants would come pi, of course, for March. My nominee for April is Feigenbaum’s constant delta, which equals 4.669… and measures how quickly growth processes spin off into chaos.

I’ll wait for my first batch to achieve official holiday status before going any further – happy to consider any candidates you want to nominate.

Manil Suri, Professor of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Maryland, Baltimore County

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. 

Agregue sabor a la parrilla

Si está cansado de voltear hamburguesas, agregue sabor a la parrilla con tacos suaves y fajitas condimentadas.

Estas recetas fáciles comienzan con pollo natural Tyson® marinado en el aceite de oliva Bertolli® extra virgen, con cuerpo, y sabrosas especias. Luego, se asa a la perfección. Agregue a su pollo asado verduras condimentadas y una sencilla salsa hecha en casa. Luego envuélvalo con tortillas de maíz La Tortilla Factory® estilo casero, precalentadas en la parrilla para obtener un sabor fresco y natural.

Fajitas con estilo propio
Agregue su toque personal a las fajitas de pollo asado con estas ideas deliciosas:

Estilo ranchero
Agregue 3 lonjas de tocino a la pimienta cortadas en cubos al pollo cortado en juliana de 1/2 pulgada.
Después de saltear los pimientos, agregue tomates y champiñones en cubos y caliente.
Cubra con salsa ranchera.

Estilo jamaicano
Para marinar:
Cubra el pollo con dos cucharaditas de aderezo y deje marinar.

Verduras
Mientras saltea las verduras, agregue 1 1/2 cucharadita de aderezo.

Salsa
Combine 1/4 de taza de papaya y piña, 3 cucharadas de cebolla morada, 1 diente de ajo picado, 2 cucharadas de ralladura de lima, 1 cucharada de jugo fresco de lima y 1 cucharada de coriandro picado.

Crema agria de lima
Agregue ralladura y jugo de media lima a la crema agria.

Es tan fácil agregarle sabor a la parrilla que podrá hacer de todas las noches una noche de parrillada. Obtenga más recetas sabrosas en www.tyson.com, www.villabertolli.com y www.latortillafactory.com.

Fajitas de pollo asado

Rinde 6 porciones
Tiempo de preparación: 20 minutos, más 30 minutos de marinado
Tiempo de cocción: 25 minutos

Para marinar:

• 1/2       taza de trozos grandes de coriandro fresco
• 1/3       taza de jugo de lima
• 4          dientes de ajo picados
• 5          cucharadas de aceite de oliva Bertolli® extra virgen
• 1          cucharadita de comino molido
• 1          cucharadita de azúcar morena
• 1/2       cucharadita de sal gruesa kosher
• 3          muslos de pollo Tyson® deshuesados, sin piel y aplanados hasta obtener un espesor de 1/2 pulgada

Verduras:

• 1          pimiento dulce rojo grande, cortado en juliana (1/4 pulgada)
• 1          pimiento dulce verde grande, cortado en juliana (1/4 pulgada)
• 1          cebolla blanca grande, cortada en julianas (1/4 pulgada)
• 1          cucharadita de aceite de oliva Bertolli® clásico
• Sal gruesa kosher
• Condimentos para fajitas
• 12        tortillas de maíz blanco La Tortilla Factory® estilo casero
• Crema agria

1. En un tazón pequeño, mezcle todos los ingredientes para marinar. Coloque las pechugas de pollo y déjelas marinar en una bolsa grande con cierre. Al cerrar la bolsa, elimine todo el aire posible, y deje marinar durante 30 minutos en la heladera.
2. Precaliente la parrilla a gas o carbón. Si utiliza la parrilla a carbón, encienda una pila de carbón. Cuando el carbón esté cubierto de ceniza gris, extiéndalo y distribúyalo sobre la parrilla, de forma pareja.
3. Saque el pollo de la bolsa y dórelo, a fuego alto, de ambos lados (4 minutos por lado) hasta cocinarlo por completo a una temperatura interna de 170° F.
   Retírelo del fuego y déjelo descansar durante cinco o diez minutos. Córtelo en julianas de 1/2 pulgada.
   Mezcle los pimientos y la cebolla con un poco de aceite de oliva y una pizca de sal.
4. Coloque una sartén de hierro fundido directamente sobre el carbón caliente o sobre la parrilla, en el caso de usar una parrilla a gas. Una vez que esté caliente la sartén, coloque los pimientos y la cebolla. Siga cocinando y revuelva con frecuencia hasta obtener un tostado suave, entre 5 y 10 minutos.
5. Coloque las tortillas sobre la parrilla hasta entibiarlas.
6. Arme las fajitas con verduras, pollo y una cucharada de crema agria.

Tacos suaves de pollo asado

Rinde 6 porciones
Tiempo de preparación: 25 minutos
Tiempo de cocción: 10 minutos

Para marinar:

• 3          cucharadas de aceite de oliva Bertolli® extra virgen
• 3          cucharadas de jugo fresco de lima
• 1          cucharadita de pimentón
• 1/2       cucharadita de sal gruesa kosher
• 1 1/2    cucharadita de pimienta negra recién molida
• 6          muslos de pollo Tyson® deshuesados y sin piel

Salsa:

• 1 1/2    taza de trozos grandes de tomate maduro
• 1          aguacate maduro grande, pelado y cortado en cubos
• 6          cebollines picados, sólo la parte blanca
• 1/4       taza de coriandro fresco, finamente picado
• 1 1/2    cucharada de jalapeño picado
• 1          cucharada de jugo de lima
• Sal gruesa kosher
• Pimienta negra recién molida

Condimentos para tacos:

• 1          taza de queso Monterey Jack gratinado
• Lechuga iceberg
• 1          taza de crema agria
• 1          cucharada de leche
• 1          lata (15 onzas) de frijoles negros, calientes
• 10        tortillas de maíz blanco La Tortilla Factory® estilo casero

1. Para marinar: en un tazón pequeño, mezcle todos los ingredientes para marinar.
   Enjuague los muslos del pollo con agua fría y séquelos con toallas de papel. Coloque los ingredientes para marinar con el pollo en una bolsa con cierre. Al cerrar la bolsa, elimine todo el aire posible, y deje marinar durante toda la noche.
2. Para hacer la salsa: combine los ingredientes para la salsa y sazone con sal y pimienta.
3. En un tazón aparte, combine la leche con la crema agria.
4. Precaliente la parrilla a gas o carbón. Si utiliza la parrilla a carbón, encienda una pila de carbón. Cuando el carbón esté cubierto de ceniza gris, extiéndalo y distribúyalo sobre la parrilla, de forma pareja.
5. Ase el pollo directamente a fuego medio durante 8 a 10 minutos, volteándolo una sola vez, hasta que la carne esté firme y la temperatura interna alcance los 170° F. Retírelo del fuego y déjelo descansar durante cinco o diez minutos. Corte el pollo en trozos pequeños.
6. Coloque el pollo, el queso, los frijoles negros escurridos, la crema agria, la salsa y la lechuga en las tortillas asadas. Agregue una cucharada de crema agria.

SOURCE:
Tyson,Bertolli, La Tortilla Factory

Why are snails and slugs so slow?

One distinction between a snail and a slug: The snail has a shell. maxphotography/Moment via Getty Images

John F. Tooker, Penn State; Daniel Bliss, Penn State, and Jared Adam, Penn State

Curious Kids is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskidsus@theconversation.com.

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Why are snails and slugs so slow? – Sarah, age 11, Wichita Falls, Texas

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Wander through your backyard or walk along a stream and it’s likely you’ll see a snail – small, squishy animals with shells on their backs.

Snails are found in water, whether in salty oceans, rivers or lakes. They’re also on land: in forests, grasslands and even your garden.

A garden slug – slimy, slippery and without a shell. Busybee-CR/Moment via Getty Images

As you explore your yard or woods, you can also encounter slugs, which are slow-moving animals related to snails. They look like them too, except that slugs lack shells.

Not only can you find slugs crossing sidewalks or on plants at the park – some are in our oceans.

All told, an estimated 240,000 species of snails and slugs live all over the world. But no matter what continent they’re on, or what ocean they’re in, there’s one thing they all have in common: They move slowly.

Here’s an example of just how slow they are: The World Snail Racing Championships, held in the United Kingdom, pits the quickest snails against one another in a “foot” race.

The fastest snail on record sped through the course at a blazing 0.06 miles per hour.

Or to look at it another way – if you were that slow, it would take about three minutes to get a bite of food from your plate to your mouth.

See a snail find its way home.

Mollusks are everywhere

Why is it that snails and slugs are in no hurry?

As researchers who specialize in the study of plants and animals, we’ve learned the answer is more complicated than you might think.

Snails and slugs are members of a large group of related animals known as mollusks, which also includes clams, oysters, squids and octopuses.

Within mollusks, there’s a smaller set of related animals called gastropods; this includes snails and slugs.

Because they live in such diverse places, different gastropods have evolved to consume almost every type of food. Some species are herbivores – they eat living plants. Some are detritivores – they feed on dead or decomposing plants. Others are carnivores or scavengers – they eat other animals.

The reasons for slowness

The lack of speed of snails and slugs can be attributed to at least three factors: how they move, what they eat and what eats them.

First, while some animals fly, jump or slither, snails and slugs move using what biologists call the “ventral foot.” But the word “foot” here can be confusing. A snail or slug foot is nothing like a human foot.

Instead, it’s a band of muscle that runs along the underside of their body and is covered in sticky mucus. When contracted, this muscle ripples, sending tiny waves from the animal’s tail to its head. These waves compress the mucus on the bottom of the foot into a slippery liquid, allowing the snail or slug to glide over the ground or climb plants.

It’s a unique way to move, and it forces snails and slugs to go slowly because their speed is limited by the number of foot contractions and the amount of mucus they can make.

And snails and slugs don’t need to rush to find their food anyway.

Many animals, particularly predators, must move fast to catch a meal; a cheetah needs to outrun a gazelle, for example. But most slugs and snails eat plants, decaying matter or marine animals, like sponges, which are anchored in place. None move around much, so dinner’s not going anywhere – no rush.

The Mediterranean nudibranch, a species of sea slug. A. Martin UW photography/Moment via Getty Images

Dealing with predators

Nor do snails and slugs need to be fast to avoid predators. They’ve evolved other ways to evade mice, birds, shrews and other enemies.

Typically, snails withdraw into their shells to hide until the predator passes.

Land slugs hide in plain sight. Most are shades of gray, tan or brown and blend in well with their surroundings. Predators simply don’t notice them. They also have an additional layer of protection. Land slugs are covered with a sticky mucus, similar to the mucus that lubricates their movement. But this version is so gooey that it can gum up the mouths of predators and make it hard to chew. Not to mention that most predators probably wouldn’t find the slime very tasty.

In contrast, sea slugs are often easy to see because they are colorful. But these bright colors advertise to predators that they should stay away, because the slugs are protected with nasty-tasting poisons.

The colors and patterns on the shells of some snails are stunning.

Treat snails and slugs with respect

Snails and slugs, small as they are, are big contributors to the health of their ecosystems.

By feeding on seeds and young plants, they can control which plants grow in an area. By eating decaying matter, they help recycle nutrients that growing plants can use. And despite their best efforts, snails and slugs do often become food for other animals.

So the next time you see a snail or slug hanging from a plant, dawdling in your yard or gliding across a concrete sidewalk, stop and observe. Remember its remarkable biology, the unique way it moves and looks, and the many ways it benefits the environment.

And then, let them be. These small animals help keep our world running.

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Hello, curious kids! Do you have a question you’d like an expert to answer? Ask an adult to send your question to CuriousKidsUS@theconversation.com. Please tell us your name, age and the city where you live.

And since curiosity has no age limit – adults, let us know what you’re wondering, too. We won’t be able to answer every question, but we will do our best.

John F. Tooker, Professor of Entomology and Extension Specialist, Penn State; Daniel Bliss, Master's Student in Entomology, Penn State, and Jared Adam, Master's Student in Entomology, Penn State

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. 

 

     Stanley Stoutamire, Jr., a senior at John Carroll Catholic High School, serves as the Student Government Association treasurer, a student ambassador, a 2022 Alabama 4-H state ambassador, and a 2022 Alabama delegate to 4-H Citizenship Washington Focus. He also serves as the drum major of the Marching Cavaliers and treasurer of his school’s Eco Club. During the summer of 2020, he began an annual community food drive to support his local food bank. He is a member of the National Honor Society, a National Merit Commended Scholar and an Advanced Placement Scholar with Distinction. Stanley plans to attend college to pursue a degree in the medical field. His ultimate goal is to bridge communication barriers between healthcare providers and the government.

Chosen as alternates to the 2023 program were Mr. Noah Michael Sanderson, a resident of Muscle Shoals, who attends Colbert Heights High School and Ms. Anna Elizabeth Wingate, a resident of Eufaula, who attends Eufaula High School.

     Delegates and alternates are selected by the state departments of education nationwide and the District of Columbia and Department of Defense Education Activity, after nomination by teachers and principals. The chief state school officer for each jurisdiction confirms the final selection. This year’s Alabama delegates and alternates were designated by Eric G. Mackey, State Superintendent of Education.

     During the program week, the student delegates will attend meetings and briefings with senators, the president, a justice of the Supreme Court, and leaders of cabinet agencies, among others.

In addition to outstanding leadership abilities and a strong commitment to volunteer work, the student delegates rank academically in the top one percent of their states among high school juniors and seniors. Now more than 6,000 strong, alumni of the program continue to excel and develop impressive qualities that are often directed toward public service. Among the many distinguished alumni are: Senator Susan Collins, the first alumnus to be elected U.S. senator; Secretary of Transportation and former Mayor of South Bend Indiana, Pete Buttigieg, the first alumnus to be appointed as a cabinet secretary; former Senator Cory Gardner, the second alumnus to be elected U.S. senator and the first to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives; former New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, the first alumnus to be elected governor; former Chief Judge Robert Henry, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit; former Ambassador to West Germany Richard Burt, former presidential advisors Thomas "Mack" McLarty and Karl Rove. 

     Additional notables include former Lt. Governor of Idaho David Leroy, Provost of Wake Forest University Rogan Kersh, military officers, members of state legislatures, Foreign Service officers, top congressional staff, healthcare providers and other university educators.

     Members of the U. S. Senate Youth Program 2023 annual Senate Advisory Committee are: Senator John Hickenlooper of Colorado, the 2023 USSYP Democratic Co-Chair and Senator Shelley Moore Capito of West Virginia, the 2023 USSYP Republican Co-Chair. The full USSYP Senate Advisory Committee consists of the vice president of the United States and the Senate majority and minority leaders who annually serve as the program’s Honorary Co-Chairs; two senators, one from each party, serving as acting Co-Chairs who each have keynote speaking roles, and an eight-member bipartisan senate panel, four senators from each party, who lend their names in support. Serving on the Advisory Committee for the upcoming program are: Senator Tammy Baldwin of Wisconsin, Senator Cory Booker of New Jersey, Senator Bob Casey of Pennsylvania, Senator Jon Tester of Montana, Senator Marsha Blackburn of Tennessee, Senator Bill Cassidy, MD, of Louisiana, Senator Tom Cotton of Arkansas and Senator Cynthia M. Lummis of Wyoming.

For more information please visit: www.ussenateyouth.org

Avocado Industry Analysis

A favorite fruit across the country, avocados provide plenty of smiles for those who enjoy their fresh flavor as an ingredient in recipes or on their own as a better-for-you snack.

However, their taste isn’t the only benefit. According to the Avocado Institute, Mexican Hass Avocados contribute to national and state economies in major ways. In fact, the thriving industry results in $11.2 billion in U.S. economic output while creating 58,299 U.S. jobs.

Americans aren’t the only ones who stand to benefit; 78,000 direct and permanent jobs are created in Mexico along with 300,000 indirect and seasonal jobs, adding a touch of goodness to both nations.

To find out more about the avocado industry, visit avocadoinstitute.org.

 

SOURCE:
Avocados From Mexico

Análisis de la industria del aguacate

El aguacate, una de las frutas favoritas en todo el país, hace sonreír a quienes disfrutan de su sabor fresco, ya sea como ingrediente en una receta o el aguacate solo como un refrigerio saludable.

Sin embargo, su sabor no es el único beneficio. De acuerdo con el Instituto del Aguacate, los aguacates Hass mexicanos contribuyen de manera importante a las economías nacionales y estatales. De hecho, la próspera industria da como resultado $11.2 mil millones en la producción económica de EE. UU. mientras crea 58,299 empleos en EE. UU.

Los estadounidenses no son los únicos que se benefician; en México se crean 78,000 empleos directos y permanentes junto con 300,000 empleos indirectos y temporales, beneficiando a ambos países.

Para obtener más información sobre la industria del aguacate, visite avocadoinstitute.org.

 

SOURCE:
Avocados From Mexico

Gestionar la salud de su familia durante todo el año

Ahora es un buen momento para registrarse y asegurarse de que toda su familia esté protegida contra enfermedades infecciosas.

Según los Centros para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades (CDC, por sus siglas en inglés), las vacunas ayudan a crear anticuerpos protectores que combaten las infecciones. Se sabe que las vacunas de rutina a tiempo, como SPR (sarampión, paperas y rubéola) y Tdap (tétanos, difteria y tos ferina), evitan alrededor de 4 millones de muertes al año, sin embargo, solo 1 de cada 5 adultos está al día con sus vacunas.

La comodidad, la accesibilidad y la falta de confianza juegan un papel fundamental en el motivo por el cual las cifras de vacunación son bajas en algunos grupos demográficos y regiones geográficas. Las farmacias y clínicas comunitarias, como las Farmacias de Kroger Family of Companies y The Little Clinic, han surgido como opciones accesibles y convenientes para las personas que buscan los servicios de salud que necesitan, fuera de los entornos tradicionales. Estas instalaciones ofrecen una variedad de servicios de alta calidad, que incluyen asesoramiento sobre medicamentos, exámenes de salud e inmunizaciones.

La atención preventiva de rutina, incluida la administración de vacunas, puede realizarse en varios momentos del año y no se limita a una sola temporada. Ciertas poblaciones, como las personas mayores de 60 años, aquellas con enfermedades crónicas y algunas poblaciones minoritarias, corren un mayor riesgo de contraer ciertas infecciones y se les anima a mantener vacunas y refuerzos actualizados durante todo el año. (Para niños menores de 5 años, consulte con el farmacéutico o médico local para conocer las guías de vacunas).

El CDC recomienda que todas las personas mayores de 6 meses se vacunen contra la gripe anualmente. La influenza, más comúnmente conocida como gripe, es un virus respiratorio altamente contagioso que infecta la nariz, la garganta y los pulmones, y puede causar enfermedades graves, hospitalización o la muerte. Las cepas dominantes de la gripe cambian constantemente y la protección de una con el tiempo. Para reducir el riesgo de contraer o propagar la gripe, es importante vacunarse anualmente contra la misma.

Las farmacias minoristas y las clínicas ocupan una posición única en las comunidades locales a las que atienden y están profundamente comprometidas con la educación y la divulgación sobre vacunas. Además de brindar protección contra enfermedades como la influenza, las vacunas también ofrecen protección contra la hepatitis A, la hepatitis B, la varicela, el sarampión, el VRS, la tos ferina (tos ferina), el COVID-19 y más. Al brindar a las personas información consistente y objetiva, las farmacias minoristas y las clínicas les permiten tomar decisiones informadas sobre su salud y la salud de sus seres queridos.

La investigación muestra que las escuelas y universidades tienen el potencial de cultivar una tasa de transmisión de enfermedades más alta que afecta a todas las edades, desde estudiantes hasta personal y maestros, debido a la proximidad de las personas dentro de los edificios. Cuando los estudiantes están protegidos contra enfermedades que se pueden prevenir con vacunas, experimentan menos ausencias por enfermedad, lo que les permite participar plenamente en las actividades del salón de clases y maximizar su potencial de aprendizaje.

Asegurarse de que los niños estén al día con sus vacunas también crea oportunidades para que los padres y cuidadores verifiquen sus propios estados de salud preventiva. Los Institutos Nacionales de Salud señalan que las enfermedades prevenibles por vacunas le cuestan al país aproximadamente $27 mil millones anuales en salarios perdidos y mayores costos de atención sanitaria. La falta de vacunas de rutina podría resultar en faltar al trabajo y facturas médicas que podrían impedir que las personas puedan mantener y cuidar a sus familias.

A diferencia de algunos entornos de atención sanitaria tradicionales, las farmacias y clínicas minoristas son de fácil acceso. A menudo se encuentran dentro de las comunidades locales y tienen horarios extendidos que se adaptan a los horarios de trabajo, lo que permite flexibilidad para que las personas vacunen a sus familias. De hecho, el 90% de la población de EE. UU. vive a menos de 5 millas de una farmacia. Opciones como las Farmacias de Kroger Family of Companies y otras farmacias minoristas han establecido clínicas de vacunas dentro de sus farmacias y clínicas, lo que hace que la vacunación sean una parte perfecta y conveniente de la experiencia de atención sanitaria que brindan.

Las encuestas anuales de Gallup muestran constantemente que los farmacéuticos y los enfermeros practicantes se encuentran entre las personas más confiables en el campo de la medicina. Los profesionales de los servicios sanitarios en farmacias minoristas y clínicas reciben una capacitación rigurosa y poseen un conocimiento profundo sobre las vacunas, el almacenamiento y la manipulación adecuados, así como las técnicas de administración. Estos profesionales contribuyen a la confianza de sus pacientes y a la salud de la comunidad en general.

Los proveedores minoristas difunden información precisa sobre las vacunas y abordan las dudas y la información errónea sobre las vacunas dentro de sus comunidades locales. Al priorizar las vacunas proactivas, las farmacias minoristas crean un entorno que respalda el bienestar general de los estudiantes, maestros, personal y familias por igual, ayudando a las comunidades a vivir vidas más saludables.

Para obtener más información sobre las necesidades anuales de vacunación, visite kroger.com/vaccinations o programe una visita a una farmacia o clínica local.

 

SOURCE:
Kroger Health

The pileup of plastic debris is more than ugly ocean litter

A solid-waste specialist offers ways to halt the plague of pollutants choking the seas

By Kenneth R. Weiss

How much plastic debris ends up in the world’s oceans every year? That’s a question that preoccupied University of Georgia’s Jenna Jambeck for years until she worked out the math with colleagues in 2015 and published the findings in Science. Bottom line: The tonnage translates to the equivalent of five grocery bags full of plastic lined up on every foot of coastline around the globe.

Jambeck coauthored “Plastic as a Persistent Marine Pollutant,” a 2017 review on what’s known about how marine plastics work their way into the food web, in the Annual Review of Environment and Resources. It argues for a “Global Convention on Plastic Pollution,” similar to other international conventions to tackle persistent organic pollutants such as DDT and PCBs.

This interview has been edited for length and clarity.

Let’s start with the basics: How does all this plastic debris end up in the ocean?

The commonly quoted statistic is that the majority, about 80 percent, comes from land. It gets washed by runoff or blown by wind into the ocean or into waterways that lead to the ocean. The rest, about 20 percent, comes from catastrophic events or maritime sources, much of it fishing gear. In my work, I focus on municipal solid waste and poor design of trash receptacles, collection vehicles and landfills, especially in rapidly developing economies where waste management is lagging. Deliberately tossing litter or open dumping and burning trash is a part of human nature and how we’ve historically managed waste. But some cultures still do it.

That wasn’t a problem for the oceans until plastics came on board. If you throw out metal or glass or burn paper, that’s one thing. But plastics are persistent synthetic polymers that can last for centuries. The steep, steep increase of production of plastics, 620 percent in the last 40 years, has completely changed our waste stream.

Is the plastic problem growing or shrinking?

Right now, it’s still on the growth curve because of population growth and increase of plastic use.

If there’s so much in the ocean, why don’t we see more of it? Doesn’t it float?

Some floats and some sinks. It depends on the density of the polymer. Beverage bottles are denser than seawater and would sink, unless the cap is on. Capped bottles are filled with air and people tend to see them floating. Polyethylene, such as milk jugs, and polypropylene, which is used to make food packaging and wrappers, are the most common types of packaging that floats. Over time, the materials fragment into smaller and smaller pieces. Their density can change as they get colonized by bacteria and algae and then they can drift to the seafloor like marine snow.

We know that the ocean can spit plastic back on beaches. And there is plastic flying above our heads in the stomachs of seabirds. But we hypothesize that most of it probably ends up at the bottom of the ocean, potentially ground into smaller and smaller bits.

Why should we be concerned about this?

We’ve all seen heartbreaking pictures of entangled marine life, struggling to get free. We find plastic bags in the stomachs of sea turtles, plastic straws stuck in their nostrils. Plastics don’t biodegrade in the ocean, but fragment over time into microplastics, about the size of pencil erasers. And now we are finding microbeads, the size of the tip of a pencil, or even smaller. They replaced walnut shells or pumice as abrasives in toothpaste and exfoliating agents in body cleansers. And now, there’s a hot new area of environmental research tracking microfibers from synthetic fabrics, like fleece, often made of polyethylene. When you wash these garments, little pieces of these fibers wash out with the wastewater and can end up in the ocean. We’re just learning how all these fragments might come back to haunt us.

Can you offer an example of how plastic bits in the ocean might haunt us?

Depending on its size, plastic will get consumed by marine organisms. We have found plastic in the bellies of fish, and many, many other animals. Some research focuses on shellfish, like mussels or oysters, which accumulate microplastics and microfibers as they filter seawater to feed on plankton. When we eat an oyster or a clam, we consume the entire animal and everything it has accumulated.

Aside from sounding rather unappetizing, is it a problem eating bits of plastic?

It can be for wildlife. Seabirds like albatrosses fill their bellies with plastics, which don’t provide them nutrients — so they can starve to death. But it’s also contaminants the plastics can carry, either when they were produced with phthalates [to make them more flexible] or BPA [used to manufacture strong epoxy resin], or what they pick up in the environment. Even though plastics are hard materials, at the microscopic level they absorb persistent organic compounds. Persistent organic pollutants like DDT, PCBs, flame retardants and fabric treatments have an affinity for plastic. Plastics act like sponges, soaking them up. In fact, when you want to explore sediment contamination, you stick in a flat, rectangular sheet of plastic for a few weeks and then pull it out to analyze the contaminant load.

So we could be getting a side of pesticides or flame retardants with our seafood dinner?

Marine life and humans can be exposed to those chemicals in other ways, of course, but this is another potential pathway for those chemicals to reach us. Chelsea Rochman [an ecologist at the University of Toronto] has shown that fish have absorbed some persistent organic pollutants from plastics and had lesions on their livers, which are precursors to cancer. But we don’t yet understand the link between plastics, toxic compounds they carry, and what this could mean for humans.

What does it take for plastic to disintegrate, to break down into component parts?

Heat and sunlight can break down plastic. But we don’t think there is a lot of biodegradation for traditional polymers in the ocean. We don’t have a lot of sunlight on the ocean floor, and it’s much cooler in temperature. There’s a lot of abrasion and mixing near the surface to grind them up. And science has isolated a couple of strains of microbes and bacteria that can metabolize carbons in plastic. But our common understanding is that the long-chain polymers don’t really biodegrade.

We often hear about schemes to clean up the plastic debris in the ocean. Is this the right solution?

I like to use the analogy of the overflowing bathtub. If your bathtub is overflowing, the first you thing you do is turn off the tap. There are some worthwhile ocean cleanup efforts, such as collecting nets and fishing gear. But we need to focus on stopping the input from land.

How do we do that?

There is a whole continuum of solutions upstream that will affect downstream: reducing plastic production and devising ways to deliver products with less waste. We produce almost four times as much waste on a per capita basis as many middle-income countries. There’s talk about new materials, and designing them in a way to retain their value so they can be recycled. When needed, plastics should be properly treated and contained at a disposal site, but that is the least desirable option.

It’s exciting to work in a field where we could make a difference so quickly.

You sound quite passionate about the topic. How did this start?

When I was getting my PhD at University of Florida, I took a solid-waste class and I fell in love with studying solid waste. I’m fascinated with what people decide to throw away and what people decide to pick out and collect. Everywhere I go around the world, I take pictures of trash cans and talk to trash collectors. When I’m at a hotel, and I hear the beeping of a truck backing up, I think that may be the trash truck and I need to get a picture. I’m in an international speakers program sponsored by the [U.S.] State Department, and go to universities to meet with other professors and students and government officials about how to keep plastic from going in the ocean. Sometimes they take me to landfills, but I also like to go independently. I am fascinated with them as places that reveal our history and current state of affairs. I don't associate dumps with waste but with people who threw away the waste, and those who are there to manage it or recycle it. I love to talk to waste pickers to better understand their social and cultural issues. I get so jazzed with those on-the-ground interactions. I just love it.

Sounds like dumps are your happy place?

They are. I met my husband at the landfill when I was in grad school. We fell in love at the landfill. This was in Florida and the landfill was a high point. We could see romantic sunsets there. My husband doesn't really have the romanticized view of the landfill that I do. But he definitely understands me, which is great.

When did you begin to focus on plastic debris flowing into the ocean?

I started looking at the issue in 2001 and I was laughed at. Fewer people cared about the issue back then, and the field wasn’t respected as a scientific discipline. But I felt instantly passionate about it. And things have changed. It’s really grown as a research field with recognition that this is a serious issue. If the goal is zero input into the oceans, one important thing you can do downstream is collect data. That’s why I developed an app.

An app?

Yes, it’s called Marine Debris Tracker and available for iOS and Android. It’s for citizen-science work. People can take a picture of, or tell us, what they find and send it to our database. We also hope they pick up whatever litter they find. We make all of the data available to the public.

In your review, you and your co-authors call for a global convention on plastic pollution. Is this really needed?

I think it is, because it’s inherently a global problem. Once plastic ends up in the ocean, it can ride the currents and end up anywhere. There are national efforts, like Kenya recently banned plastic bags. And there are regional agreements that can help. But a global convention could bring everyone together to tackle this problem.

Kenneth R. Weiss, a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, writes and surfs from his home in Carpinteria, California. @KennethWeiss kennethr.weiss@gmail.com

This article originally appeared in Knowable Magazine, an independent journalistic endeavor from Annual Reviews.

Through trying times, pets continue to play a critical role in people’s everyday lives, easing minds and filling hearts. Ninety-two percent of pet owners feel their relationship with their pets helped improve their mental and physical wellbeing over the last three years, according to the “Pets for Better Wellbeing” report by Mars Petcare, which examined the impact of pet ownership on wellbeing and analyzed potential hurdles to adding four-legged family members. Learn more at BetterCitiesforPets.com/2022Report.

 

SOURCE:
Mars Petcare

A Notch on the many paths to cancer

Tumors and more may be fueled by an ancient protein with myriad jobs in the body. Scientists hope to tap this knowledge to generate novel therapies.

By Rosie Mestel

The wheel you see above symbolizes much suffering — the image portrays the many ways in which a single protein may cause, or contribute to, a laundry list of human cancers. The protein is called Notch, and we couldn’t live without it. But when it’s in overdrive (or in underdrive, for that matter) it may wreak havoc. Today’s growing understanding of Notch’s myriad jobs, and the dark results that follow when Notch goes rogue, is spurring new approaches to treating cancer and an often-fatal side effect of transplants called graft-versus-host disease.

Notch proteins, and the biochemical pathways they control, are ancient: All multicelled animals have them. In fact, the gene that carries instructions for making Notch was first identified in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (the original mutation, found in 1917 by pioneering geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan, caused a ‘notch’ on a fly’s wing). All over animal bodies, Notch transmits signals from the outside to the inside of cells, nudging them to become one type of cell or another. And when Notch is absent in developing embryos, those embryos soon die.

Here are the nuts and bolts of how Notch works: The protein straddles the membranes of cells, with one end poking toward the outside environment and the other poking into the cell’s interior. When an activating molecule docks onto the outside end, the inside part of Notch is snipped off. The snipped-off bit then travels to the cell nucleus, where it turns on scores of genes — different ones depending on the cell type.

That puts all kinds of processes into play: Nerve cells begin to form, or gut cells, or immune cells. “Anything you imagine cells can do may occur when a cell gets a Notch signal,” says Jon Aster, a physician-scientist at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston, who works on the Notch-cancer connection. “It’s an alluring pathway — and a daunting and sometimes confusing one, too.”

The precise amounts of Notch activity are crucial. Too much or too little and the function of cells, and the body as a whole, can go awry. Several human disorders are linked to mutations in genes that encode Notch (we have four such genes, and four distinct Notch proteins). Babies born with Adams-Oliver syndrome have malformed limbs and skin; those with Alagille syndrome have defects of the liver, heart and other organs.

Scientists also now know that defects in the Notch pathway are involved in many human cancers. When Notch is active when it shouldn’t be, the result can be childhood leukemia, other blood cancers and certain types of breast and salivary gland cancer. Conversely, when Notch isn’t active when it should be, certain skin, head and neck and brain cancers can result.

Defects in the Notch pathway contribute in many distinct ways: They can turn on cancer-causing genes, such as one called Myc that drives cell proliferation. They may put cancer cells into hibernation and thus help them survive chemotherapy. Or the defects may stop tumor cells from committing suicide or encourage the formation of cancer stem cells that sustain tumor growth.

Based on this coalescing knowledge, drug companies and academic labs are tinkering with various therapies that could block inappropriate Notch activity or bring it back when it’s needed. They’re using an array of different molecules to amplify or block the signal: Some are antibodies that bind to a Notch receptor or its activator; others stop Notch from being clipped into its active form. Still others stop that active, clipped Notch from turning on genes in the nucleus. Scores of small trials are underway but it’s still early, and the results have been scattershot: Some patients in trials have responded very well, but others have not. In one recent trial, patients actually did worse.

“This is not chemotherapy, it doesn’t just massacre cells no matter what their genetics is. It needs to be used in situations where it is likely to work.”

Lucio Miele

There are no shortcuts to be had here, says physician-scientist Lucio Miele of Louisiana State University in New Orleans, who has conducted Notch clinical trials. Instead, the basic biology must be dutifully teased out, ways devised to cut down on side effects and — perhaps above all — patients selected with care and matched well to treatments. “This is not chemotherapy, it doesn’t just massacre cells no matter what their genetics is,” Miele says. “It needs to be used in situations where it is likely to work.”

Notch therapies hold promise for more than just cancer. Scientists are also eyeing them as ways to treat immune problems, such as graft-versus-host disease, a feared side effect of transplantation wherein immune T cells in grafted tissues such as bone marrow attack a recipient patient’s body. The disease is a scourge of the bone marrow transplant world, says hematologist and researcher Ivan Maillard of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. Sometimes it’s chronic — slowly stiffening joints, causing skin to ulcerate, attacking the liver and lungs. Sometimes it’s acute, rapidly attacking body tissues — and if patients don’t respond well to immune-suppressive drugs to tamp down that roiling inflammation, they generally die. “There’s a huge unmet need,” Maillard says of graft-versus-host disease. “You never know who is going to get it. It’s a roll of the dice. You hope for the best.”

It’s been difficult, he adds, to find treatments that will block graft-versus-host disease and still retain the good things a bone marrow transplant provides a cancer patient — chiefly, that T cells in the graft will kill remaining tumor cells. Notch might offer this chance. Maillard’s group has shown, in mice, that blocking one of the four Notch receptors tamps down graft-versus-host disease after a bone marrow transplant, while keeping the benefits intact. Surprisingly, the blockade needs to be up only for a short time: about 48 hours.

That’s encouraging, Maillard says. It suggests that, if the system works similarly in people, doctors could give a patient a transplant, infuse a Notch-blocker for a pulse of time, then permit Notch activity to come back online. It would make side effects in other tissues far less likely.

“It’s incomprehensible to me that there will not be a role for Notch therapeutics in the treatment of human disease.”

Jon Aster

Indeed, side effects are a challenge for those who would design Notch therapies. This is only to be expected for a set of proteins that do so many jobs in the body. But the four human Notch receptors are not identical, and researchers think that they can render therapies far more specific and safe through further learning and tinkering. (Some tinkerers, meanwhile, want to take Notch in entirely new directions by engineering synthetic Notch proteins that could perform a broad range of novel functions.) “It’s incomprehensible to me that there will not be a role for Notch therapeutics in the treatment of human disease,” says Aster. “This is just such a broadly important pathway.”

Rosie Mestel is executive editor for  Knowable Magazine. She works from Los Angeles.

This article originally appeared in Knowable Magazine, an independent journalistic endeavor from Annual Reviews.